The Construction of Gender in Late Bronze Age Aegean Art
LONG ISLAND STAYLACE ASSOCIATION'S
"LACINGS OF HISTORY"
WAIST COMPRESSION IN THE AEGEAN Tardily Statuary AGE
John G. Younger, Knuckles Academy, 2000
Abstruse
The Aegean cultures of the preclassical period present some evidence for body modification. Painted designs on the faces and bodies of Neolithic terracotta figurines, Early Cycladic marble statuettes, Tardily Minoan I frescoes from Akrotiri, Thera, and later Mycenaean terracotta statuettes present some evidence for early tattooing. Late Bronze Age women, and some men, also wore earrings in pierced ears. In the Neopalatial flow in Crete, still, there is good show that Minoan women used laced bodices and men used cinched belts to accomplish waist compression, a exercise that may accept continued until the Primitive period. This practice accentuated their breasts and chests which they oftentimes left exposed. This written report discusses the significance of this do in terms of gender identity, and the expression of sexuality and power.
INTRODUCTION
Preclassical Aegean people practiced several types of body modification, but none has received much attending. In the Neopalatial period in Crete (ca. 1700-1450 BC), for case, there is clear evidence that hair lengths and cuts changed according to age grades, that many, if non about women, and some men wore earrings in pierced ears, and only certain men wore beards; [1] it is as well clear that what we would consider normal preparation, including hair depilation and shaving, and the cosmetic coloring of the flesh, was practiced throughout antiquity, including preclassical Hellenic republic. [two]
Tattooing, temporary or permanent, may also have been practiced from the Neolithic into the Bronze Age, but there is niggling evidence for it in the classical period (meet, withal, the Thracians painted past the Pistoxenos Painter). [three] Neolithic terracotta figurines (ca. 5000-3000) are unremarkably painted with stripes and other patterns on both the costume and flesh areas, and these may reflect actual painted or tattooed patterns. [4] In the Early Statuary Age (ca. 2300-2100), marble statuettes from the Cyclades often preserve the "ghosts" of painted patterns that one time decorated the flesh areas which they protected from weathering; on many, though not all, marble figurines we can come across dots about the sculpted eyes, or rows of vertical lines nether them, and other patterns on the face. Since the eyes were besides sometimes painted on in outline, not sculpted, it is likely that the painted decorations also reflect real decorations to the face up. [5]
Tattooing may besides have been expert in the Late Bronze Historic period as well (ca. 1600-1200). Mycenaean terracotta figurines are similarly busy, just the terracotta statuettes (Fig. one) receive more than intricate patterns like circles, rosettes, lozenges, and dots on the confront; although these patterns may derive from vase painting they seem specific, as if imitating real decorations to the mankind, whether painted or tattooed. [6] From Akrotiri in Thera (ca. 1500) come frescoes from the Westward House, Xeste 3, and the House of the Ladies that show women with crimson painted ears and lips, and with large carmine dots or blossoms from the saffron crocus painted on their cheeks. [7] The frescoes in Xeste three show girls picking saffron crocus flowers and presenting their stigmas to a seated woman, probably a goddess since she is flanked by a blue monkey and a winged griffin on a reddish leash. The gathering of saffron, a harvest issue that probably took place in late October, may accept been the occasion for women to paint crocus blossoms on their cheeks — these would exist temporary adornments, and the occasion would be religious as well as agricultural. [8]
WAIST Pinch IN THE CRETAN NEOPALATIAL Menstruum
These early indications of body modification are interesting and each one warrants its own study, merely here I want to concentrate on the Neopalatial period, the high point of Minoan culture that complanate in a series of destructions in the mid fifteenth century; it is in this period that there is prove for extreme body sculpting. Neopalatial art characterizes well-nigh males and females with wasp-thin waists; the art is famous, especially its frescoes, for its depictions of lithe males with bared scarlet torsoes and legs and of buxom women in richly decorated bodices and flounced skirts (Figs. two-7).
When this fine art first came to light, in the get-go decade of the 20th century, scholars of the time recognized that the slender waists of the Minoans had been produced by corsets and cinching belts. In his first report on the excavations at the Bronze Age palace at Knossos in Crete, Sir Arthur Evans included a note by his stepmother on the faience figurines known as the Snake Goddesses: "The bodies of the figures are closely bars within their bodices ... The lines adopted are those considered ideal past the moderrn corset maker," [9] and he himself remarks on their girdle, "perhaps of metal" that produced their "matronly forms." [ten] Similarly, J.L. Myres, who excavated the peak sanctuary at Petsofa in a higher place Palaikastro, writes at length well-nigh the terracotta figurines he found there and the belt that created their slender waists. [11] These scholars, who lived in the Edwardian Age when tight-lacing was more commonly practiced than now, recognized its effects on the Minoan effigy.
Nowadays, people do non much practice tight-lacing and corsetry, only those who do and those who report it besides recognize its effects on the Minoan figure. [12]
The idea, then, that Minoans in the Neopalatial period expert tight-lacing to produce their slender waists, is not new. Information technology is possible that their wasp-waists might be a physical trait of the Cretan race, [13] and I myself have seen such people in the island, but it is not so mutual a trait that the alternating theory in favor of deliberate tight-lacing needs to exist abandoned. What I wish to contribute to this discussion is threefold: to reintroduce it to the scholarly discourse since tight-lacing is rarely understood today, to employ a new technology (the Net) for presenting the type of comparative show that was known to Myres and the Evanses 100 years ago and has been forgotten today, and to begin the procedure of speculating on the roles that tight-lacing might accept played in Minoan constructions of gender and sexuality.
THE EVIDENCE
The bodily evidence for Minoan tight-laced corseting is problematic for four reasons. Outset, Sir Arthur Evans based his discussion of corseting primarily on artistic depictions in frescoes plant in the excavations of the palace of Knossos, [fourteen] besides as stone, ivory, and bronze statuettes that are now thought to exist forgeries, [fifteen] and it is these, unfortunately, that are now frequently cited in the modern literature and Internet websites as bear witness of Minoan corseting. [sixteen]
Second, although most Minoans depicted in art have extremely slender waists, this body construction was not universal: a few portly men are likewise depicted, at least ii every bit bronze figurines and ane on a relief vase. [17] Like the few men who wear beards, it is possible that portliness was a feature of a certain course (east.1000., priestly) or category (east.m., eunuch) of person in Crete.
Third, no tight-laced corsets are actually depicted. Instead, three depictions of women really bear witness a tight-laced bodice made of cloth (apparently single-piece) [18] that follows the constricted lines of the wasp-waist and helps back up the bared breasts; information technology is this that Evans and others thought might have been stiffened past metallic slats to act like a corset. Since most of these single-piece bodices are depicted as opaque, it is possible that they covered a corset or are brusk-hand notations for the laced corset. Most Minoan fresco depictions of women are miniatures (due east.g., the "Temple" fresco from Knossos), [nineteen] just some large-scale relief frescoes have survived (e.yard., from Pseira), [20] and these show the bodice clearly and it is no corset. Similarly, the fresco higher up the lustral basin in Xeste iii at Akrotiri, Thera, for instance, shows a young adult female, the so-called "Necklace Swinger", wearing a transparent bodice, open at the front (Fig. viii). [21] Her exposed chest is perhaps not fully developed, but one can come across through the bodice and in that location is no corset producing the slender waist or supporting the chest.
And fourth, i garment that may have produced the wasp-waist is depicted frequently, just it is a special belt (discussed below) and apparently simply for men (and perhaps certain special young women).
The tight-laced bodice, mentioned above, is shown worn by the three faience "Snake Goddesses" from the East Temple Repository at Knossos (ca. 1600; Figs. iv-vii). 1 holds her two snakes aloft and wears a bonnet with a feline perched on top; the second holds the snakes against her lowered arms and wears a tall conical hat with a snake wrapped effectually it; the third is fragmentary and preserves only the waist and brim. [22] The costume of each adult female differs in details only is roughly like: a bolero-blazon jacket with short sleeves curves around and under the breasts; a brusque double apron lies in back and in front over a long skirt; and a moderately broad belt, slightly concave, masks the join between jacket and apron. [23] In improver, the fragmentary woman wears a horizontally striped brim, and her jacket is laced under the breasts, although the arrangement of the lacing is unclear; the woman with the cat-hat wears a flounced skirt, while her jacket is secured under the breasts past a single lace with a tall loop, every bit if tied past a slipknot; and the woman with the conical hat wears a similarly laced and tied jacket, although a second lace, above the first, runs just under the breasts (the belt is hidden by a double girdle of snakes). All iii depictions of the bodice show it laced in front end and only by i or two laces (perhaps a 3rd lies hidden under the belt). With so few laces, it seems unlikely that such a garment, if only of material, was the one that really produced the wasp-waist; it may, yet, have been a costume that helped retain the figure and was considered proper to article of clothing in public.
The man's chugalug, however, is unlike (Figs. 2, three, 9-12) considering the male person physique is different. [24] When depicted with attention to item (Fig. iii), the chugalug is alpine, approximately 12-17 cm, concave, with a pronounced roll of material above and a smaller one below. The central concave portion of the belt appears potent, as if fabricated of thick hide or even metallic. The rolls at pinnacle and bottom may be rouletted with vertical striations, although the lower curlicue is less pronounced. Another material, rock, is a remote possibility (cf. the Mayan hip yokes), if only considering there are almost identical parallels to the belt in rock: the dissever rock necks and necking rings of many rhyta (cf. the Sanctuary Rhyton, Fig. 15). [25]
The belt ordinarily tops a loincloth consisting of a backflap that snugly covers the buttocks and a codpiece over the penis sheath in front. The codpiece projects pronouncedly with a pinnacle at the elevation, as if made from some strong cloth, again perhaps shaped hide or metal. I assume that the vertical codpiece is hollow, like a tube, for enclosing the penis, and that the peak at the meridian reflects the tip of the uncircumcised penis; if and then, and then it is likely that the foreskin was infibulated (pierced) for drawing the penis up against the trunk and for securing it within the codpiece, peradventure past a string much like the Classical "dogknot." [26] Such a reinforcement may take been necessary since the dislocation of internal organs acquired by the constricting belt would have been able, nether strain, to crusade hernias; [27] similarly, the belt itself, like a weightlifter'southward chugalug, might take protected the lower back and diaphragm during strenuous activeness.
Occasionally the belt is associated with a kilt or with culottes and in these representations their material and that at the top of the belt is plainly cloth and richly decorated. [28]
It is possible that these belts may also be worn by richly costumed women, [29] though they seem looser and double. Otherwise, this special belt is worn in a diversity of active occupations, mostly bull-leapers (east.g., the Knossos "Taureador" frescoes, Fig. 12 & 13) and balderdash-handlers (eastward.g., the gilt cups from the Vapheio tholos, Figs. 2 & 3), boxers (e.g., the "Boxer" rhyton from Ayia Triada, Figs. nine & ten), the workers on the "Harvester Vase" as well from Ayia Triada (Fig. 11), and processional figures; [thirty] there are many more than belted figures. [31] In all these examples, the torso assumes a strongly triangular shape, the chest loftier and shoulders flared in the so-called "pouter-pigeon" expect. Occasionally, the pinnacle of the hips form a shelf, resulting from the astringent constriction of the belt higher up. [32]
The bull-leapers are the near interesting; [33] while nearly leapers in frescoes are painted red-chocolate-brown and are therefore presumed to be male person, some leapers and their assistants are painted white, a color in fresco reserved otherwise for females (Figs. 13 & 14). [34] Apart from their colour, the white and ruby-red-brown balderdash-leapers are otherwise indistinguishable; they take the same compressed waist with high chest (no breast development for the females, although the nipple may be painted cerise), and both wear the aforementioned costume (chugalug, loincloth with backflap and codpiece, and pointed shoes with leggings wrapped around the calf). The similarity betwixt red- and white-painted leapers has caused several scholars to assume that the colour convention does not obtain in bull-leaping, that females did not leap bulls, and that the white-painted figures must exist special males or leapers in another dimension. [35] Only it can too be argued that biological males and females both leapt bulls, say during some coming-of-age ceremony for elite persons, just that the action was gendered male, and the female person participants therefore wore a male costume. [36] As for the females' lack of breast development, information technology is well known that the exercise and training that young women athletes must go through oftentimes retards or fifty-fifty interrupts their own maturation.
LATER & MODERN WAIST Pinch
As for the later history of waist constriction in the Aegean it is possible that the Mycenaeans of the Tardily Bronze Age on the mainland did not practice it. In some palace frescoes women and men are shown in Minoan costume, and with slender waists, only these may be borrowed anachronistic features: most palace frescoes show dissimilar garb. [37] In the Iron Age, there is greater evidence for the cinch belt; it and its effects (triangular torso, shelf-like hips) are prominent in Belatedly Geometric figure painting (late eighth century) and the Cretan Daedalic way in sculpture (late 7th century; Fig. 16). It is possible, therefore, that waist compression was skillful, at least at sure times, until the Primitive period, when we no longer come across men and women with compressed waists depicted on Black Figure vases.
In more modernistic times tight-lacing has non been much practiced, although it can exist traced from the early Renaissance; in the Victorian and Edwardian periods there was a resurgence and both men and women of the upper classes occasionally practiced it to produce exaggerated hourglass figures. [38] After World War I, tight-lacing began to decline chop-chop and information technology is now relegated to the practise and curiosity of a few. [39] Equally a social practise, however, corseting has recently become an object of a scholarly attention that uses post-modern sexuality theories to examine how our own and earlier societies have practiced trunk modification to express personal and social identity, class, ethnicity, sex and gender. [40]
Since corseting is not now much practiced or understood, information technology needs to be defined and characterized: corseting or tight lacing is an artificial process that alters body shape, specifically at the waist with secondary effects at the hips and chest. Primarily, a corset compresses the waist, just secondarily it accentuates the hips and pushes the abdominal organs up into the thoracic cavity, swelling the ribs out and lifting the chest high (the high-chested "pouter pigeon" look). Long-term corseting can produce extremely narrow waists. Although the legend that "Catherine de Medici, wife of Henry Ii of French republic, ready a standard of thirteen inches for the feminine waist, which after was copied by Britain'south Queen Elizabeth I and other rulers" can be discredited, [41] some fetishists today strive for an fifty-fifty thinner waist; [42] a woman nicknamed "spook" achieved fourteen inches in 1999. [43]
For maximum and long-lasting effects, compressing the waist is a process that needs to be carried out over a long flow of time, and practitioners tin can start being corseted earlier puberty; Sir Arthur Evans thus characterized Minoan waist pinch:, "while children of both sexes were still of very tender years, metallic belts were riveted round them, to which their growing bodies adapted themselves and which remained a permanency for at least the greater part of their life." [44] If corseting is applied for an extremely long period of time, the ribs may get so displaced that they may not render completely to their natural position once corsetting has been stopped. [45]
Today, the practice of tight-lacing is perfect for the virtual urban world of the World Wide Web, which allow practitioners and the curious alike to experience corseting voyeuristically, to certificate their own practices in web sites with text and in pictures, to "chat" well-nigh their fantasies and practices, and to "go in touch."
From these web sites we learn that mod corsets (Fig. 17) wrap around the waist and are tall enough to extend from the top of the hips to the breast; tall corsets may cover the chest, while short corsets cease brusk of the breasts or, in the example of men, just under the sternum and rib cage. The corsets unremarkably are of a sturdy material, strengthened past vertical slats or stays, and wrap around the front of the torso to exist laced tight at the back. Tightly laced corsets produce the constriction and narrowing of the waist that is desired, also as the uplifting of the breast above, shelf-like hips below, and a pronounced S-curve of the dorsum (Figs. 18 & 19). [46]
This S-curve can be further enhanced past a special S-bend corset that forces the buttocks to beetle at a pronounced right angle behind the body, [47] a posture similar to that seen on many Tardily Geometric vases. Another extension of the corset, the Spoon, tin heighten the narrow waist past compressing the buttocks, hips, and upper pubic region; the spoon is, like the corset, fabricated of a sturdy cloth, sometimes a metal plate, and, like a double salad spoon, fits over front and dorsum of the hips and buttocks and compresses them together. [48] Perhaps this device is similar to the double apron worn past the Ophidian Goddesses (Figs. 4-half dozen).
During the process of waist compression, the tightly laced corset does not need to be worn constantly, simply may be replaced by a tall belt, to exist worn during sleep and exercise; information technology continues the constriction just allows the organs within a bit of respite. [49] Such a belt is available today commercially (Figs. 20-22) at slightly over $100, and it is specially designed to produce effects like to those produced by the corset.
Understanding MINOAN WAIST COMPRESSION
What would the corset and constricting belt take washed for the Minoans? Nosotros may infer some of the emotional and concrete furnishings by studying the contexts in which Minoan men and women wore sure-fire belts and laced bodices, at to the lowest degree those contexts that were depicted. For more information, nosotros may adduce comparative ethnographic material, but this must be washed carefully. Certainly some of the physical effects of tight lacing may be considered more or less the aforementioned, regardless of the culture or fourth dimension in which it is practiced; the emotional and psychical effects, however, may be quite different, depending on the social constructions of the meaning of those physical effects. Nonetheless, I retrieve it is valuable, when contemplating the Minoan significance of waist pinch, to consider the experiences of our contemporaries who practice information technology, and then as to gain thereby a wide range of experiences and expressions, which we may drawn upon when nosotros construct our own agreement of the Minoan practise.
In the following give-and-take, therefore, I rely on Kunzel's account of the modern effects that waist pinch produces, both physical and emotional, for it draws upon both theoretical models and nineteenth and early on twentieth century outset-person accounts (Kunzel1982: passim, esp. 1-65 & 301-39); additional information can be plant in more kickoff-person accounts and in fiction on today'due south websites. [50]
We beginning with the viewer, since, in a way this is the person for whom the entire process is done; in about modern cases, this is a lover who laces up the corset and confines the field of study in it. Information technology is possible to lace oneself, but all practitioners who document their experiences describe themselves as going through waist pinch literally at the hands of someone else who has the power to constrain them in the corset or belt and the power to release them. The process itself is likened to a bondage scene and can be as sexually charged. Minoan art does non depict the person who fastened the bodice or laced the belt, although there are dressing scenes: a bitty fresco from Akrotiri's House of the Ladies [51] once depicted a woman with pendulous breasts bending toward some other and handing her a flounced skirt, [52] and figures conveying robes on aureate signet rings [53] may as well refer to formalism dressing scenes.
To all who view the person who is corseted, the compression of the waist and its secondary effects phone call attention to the trunk, especially to the areas to a higher place and below the signal of constriction, to the breasts of women and chests of men and to the pubic area of both; that women expose their breasts and men their chests in Minoan art and that men wearable a prominent codpiece are all appropriate to the heightened display of these areas. For the subject, the corset and belt serve both as an implement of tension and release (a procedure basic to sexual pleasure); in modern times, both these processes are usually applied by some other person who then controls the amount of tension and the timing of the release, in much the same manner that a chief may control a slave. The compressed waist itself becomes an object, the focus of another person'south grip and thus mastery — in the motion picture-musical "The King and I" (1956), Yul Brynner thus takes Deborah Kerr before starting their musical number "Shall Nosotros Dance?" The thin wasp-waist separates the upper body with its breathing, feeling, and thinking from the lower body with its sensations of motion and sexual energy. Waist compression makes normal body positions uncomfortable; practitioners tell how sitting cantankerous-legged on the floor is preferable to sitting in chairs (is this why the aristocracy women in the Knossos "Grandstand" and "Dance in the Grove" frescoes sit down on the floor, their legs tucked under them?). [54] Waist compression practically eliminates intestinal breathing (so necessary for singing), forcing the bailiwick to breathe mainly from the chest, and apace in (palpitating) gasps (perhaps it is for this reason that the three singers on the Harvester Vase are the only youths on the vase depicted non belted, but cloaked). [55] Because of this constriction of breath and the dissociation of upper body from the legs, the subject feels light, even empty-headed, as if floating or flight. The loftier-chested, pouter-pigeon stance is exaggeratedly erect and taut (and therefore phallic), and this tenuousness (as if the waist could snap), combined with the extreme dissociation between upper and lower body, almost demands that the subject, when walking, use quick, exaggerated movements, short steps that produce swiveling hips, rocking shoulders, and fluttery arm gestures. [56] All this effects and sensations focus attention on the practioner's torso; it becomes an object to both viewer and subject field.
The sensations produced by tight-lacing and characterize to a higher place seem particularly appropriate to the Aegean depictions of bull-leaping: the lithe agility and quickness of motility that is necessary, the risk of being severed by the bull'southward horns, [57] the act of flying across the bull, the cock tiptoe stance upon landing, and the sexualized contrast between the fragility of the leaper and the power of the male bull (Figs. 12-xiv).
CONCLUSIONS
Bull-leaping is plainly a unsafe procedure, and erotic. In fact, Minoan fine art is well known for precisely this kind of thrill; in polite essays, even so, scholars hash out its sensuousness, joie de vivre, and impressionism of form and color. Minoan fine art, yet, is agonizing to modern audiences: it privileges women as powerful people [58] although modernistic societies tell united states of america that matriarchy is a myth; [59] information technology depicts nature in such profusion that landscapes resemble paradise in riot; [60] its lush scenery and genteel compositions, accept lured many scholars into imagining the Minoans every bit a uniquely peaceful and non-violent people, [61] were it not for the hint of human cede and cannibalism; [62] even more than agonizing is the contrast betwixt the many, overwhelmingly sensuous images and the fact that there is "virtually no sexual or erotic art, no depictions of sexual intercourse, no representations of intimacy, no hand holding, no embracing, no kissing." [63] This alone should make the Minoan civilisation of the Neopalatial period unique in the history of the human being race.
The simplest explanation for the lack of any erotic delineation is that Neopalatial art was a formal construction and it was non its purpose to give us viewers glimpses of overt Minoan sexuality, but rather covert reflections of it. In my study of Aegean music, I argued that the depiction of musicians and musical functioning was severely restricted, perhaps because of music'southward "power to arouse sexual passion through its rhythms and constructions of climax and cadence" was idea threatening and difficult to control. For that reason "representations of music were carefully designed to correspond to united states of america only sure people as the producers of music, only certain instruments, and only certain occasions." [64] In the Minoan practice of waist compression we may be seeing the same thing, an exercise of control over a trunk that threatens to become out of control: a body that needs to fly, a control that needs to hold it firmly in its grasp.
Minoan fine art relegates off stage, as it were, the unseen person who must accept laced the corsets and fastened the belts; but what we are allowed to see are the men and women on stage who feel helplessly constrained and disembodied, who pant for breath, and experience agitated feelings so heightened and on the border that leaping over bulls is non just a reality but also a metaphor for a life lived. Again, off stage, an unseen person must have released them from this compression, by unlacing and unfastening their constraints. But since fine art has the opportunity to fix society's full range of lived experiences into vistas, and Minoan art chooses to deny overtly expressed sexuality, I wonder if the social constraint on overt sexual expression was e'er truly removed; perhaps it was put on and off physically, like the corset and belt, but was never removed psychically. It is probably pregnant that Minoan fine art, and texts likewise, never let us see the power that exercised this control; powerful Minoan women are depicted, and goddesses, but never whatsoever person defined or labeled "ruler" [65] — in the succeeding Mycenaean age we see the ruler'due south throne and we know his championship, "wanax." Merely the Minoan power that literally gripped its people in an erotic thrall does non announced at all.
Captions to Illustrations: http://www.people.ku.edu/~jyounger/WaistCompress (link now expressionless)
1. Nauplion Museum 69-1221, terracotta statuette from the House with the Idols, Mycenae (ca. 1200) (photo author).
2. National Museum, Athens 1759, gold cup A, the "Tranquillity" cup, from the Vapheio tholos (ca. 1450) (photo writer).
3. Cartoon of the Vapheio bull-handler (courtesy of Paul Rehak).
4. Heraklion Museum, faience figurine from the East. Temple Repository, Knossos (ca 1600): adult female with the cat-hat (after Marinatos & Hirmer [northward. 17] pl. XXIV)
5. Detail of Fig. iv
half-dozen. Heraklion Museum, faience figurine from the E. Temple Repository, Knossos (ca 1600): adult female with the conical-lid (subsequently Evans [north. 14] vol. I, frontispiece).
7. Detail of Fig. 6.
8. Akrotiri, Xeste 3, room 3b, "Necklace-swinger" fresco (after South. Marinatos, Excavations at Thera (Athens 1977) vol. Vii, pl. F)
9. Heraklion Museum, the "Boxer" rhyton, detail (photo author)
10. Heraklion Museum, the "Boxer" rhyton, detail (photograph author)
eleven. Heraklion Museum, the "Harvester Vase", particular (photograph author)
12. Heraklion Museum eighteen, "Taureador" fresco from Knossos (afterward M.A.S. Cameron and S. Hood, Sir Arthur Evans' Knossos Fresco Atlas [Farnborough 1967] pl. Nine)
xiii. Particular of Fig. 12, female person rear assistant (after Cameron & and Hood [supra ill. 12] pls. X.one-3 & 5)
fourteen. Ashmolean Museum AE 1708, "Taureador" fresco from Knossos, alighting female bull-leaper (after Cameron & and Hood [supra ill. 12] pls. A2 & X.four = Evans [n. 14] vol. III, pl. XXI)
15. Heraklion Museum 2764, the "Sanctuary" rhyton from Kato Zakro (ca. 1400) (photo author)
16. Louvre 3098, "The Lady of Auxerre", marble sculpture (ca. 625) (photograph author)
17. Drawings of different kinds of corsets (from Lierse [n. 12] /cs_line.jpg, from Due south. Soemmering, �ber die Wirkungen der Schn�rbr�ste [Berlin 1793])
18. Nineteenth century poster (from Lierse [n. 12] cabinet1.jpg).
19. "spook", a contemporary woman wearing a corset (from Lierse [n. 12] /spook12a.jpg, with facial features erased by the author).
20. The LISABelt (from Lierse [n. 12] /lisabelt.jpg).
21. Man wearing the LISABelt (from Lierse [n. 12] /dieter1.jpg).
22. Woman wearing the LISABelt (from Lierse [n. 12] /corst248.jpg).
URLs to illustrations
1. Mycfig2a.jpg (unavailable)
2. VaphAaT.jpg
three. VaphAfigT.jpg
4. KNSnake1aT.jpg
5. KNSnake1bT.jpg
6. KNSnake2aT.jpg
seven. KNSnake2bT.jpg
8. Necklace1a.jpg
9. Boxer1aT.jpg
10. Boxer2aT.jpg
11. ATHarv1aT.jpg
12. TaureadorBW.jpg
xiii. Taureador1a.jpg
14. Taureador2a.jpg
15. KZSanct1b.jpg
xvi. Auxerre.jpg
17. cs_line.jpg
xviii. cabinet1.jpg
19. spook12a.jpg
20. lisabelt.jpg
21. dieter1.jpg
22. corst248.jpg
NOTES
[1] For hairstyles and jewelry, see J.G. Younger, "Bronze Age Representations of Aegean Jewelry," Eikon, edited by R. Laffineur and J. Crowley (Aegaeum 8; Li�ge 1992) 257-93, esp. 288-89, summarizing Diana Withee, "Physical Growth and Aging Characteristics Depicted in the Theran Frescoes," American Journal of Archaeology 96 (1992) 336, and E.Northward. Davis, "Youth and Age in the Thera Frescoes," American Journal of Archaeology, 90 (1986) 399-406; and for beards, see J. Betts, "The Seal from Shaft Grave Gamma — A "Mycenaean Chieftain?" Temple University Aegean Symposium, half dozen (1981) 2-8.
[two] K. Papaefthimiou-Papanthimou, " Skeu&h kai su&nerga tou kallwpismou& ston krhtomukhnai"ko& xw&ro " (PhD diss., Aristotle University, 1979), and " Minwi"ke&j kai mukhnai"ke&j marturi&ej gia ton kallwpismo& ," Arxaiologi&a 31 (1989) 8-thirteen.
[iii] M. Robertson, Art of Vase Painting in Classical Athens (Cambridge 1992) 157; and I.C. Storey, "Philoxenos ... of hundred-to-one gender," Periodical of Hellenic Studies 115 (1992) 182-84.
[four] L.E. Talalay, "Body Imagery of the Ancient Aegean," Archaeology 44 (1991) 46-49, and Excavations at Franchthi Cavern, Greece, vol. 9: Deities, Dolls, and Devices. Neolithic Figurines from Franchthi Cave, Greece (Bloomington/Indianapolis 1993) 161-68.
[v] P.G. Preziosi and Southward.South. Weinberg, "Prove for Painted Details in Early Cycladic Sculpture," Antike Kunst xiii (1970) 4-12. For another illustration, see G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive Hellenic republic: Mycenian Art (London 1894) vol. ii, 184-85.
[six] Due east. French, "Mycenaean Figures and Figurines: Their Typology and Role," Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by R. H�gg and N. Marinatos (Stockholm 1981) 173-77, figs. viii and 9, and eadem, "Chapter 6: The Figures and Figurines," The Archaeology of Cult: The Sanctuary at Phylakopi, by C. Renfrew (London 1985) 209-80.
[7] Grand. Doumas, The Wall-Paintings of Thera (Athens 1992) pls. 6 & 7, ix & 10, 24 & 25, 118 & 119, 125 & 126, and 131 & 132.
[viii] P. Rehak, "The Aegean Landscape and the Body: A New Interpretation of the Thera Frescoes," From the Ground Upward: Across Gender Theory in Archaeology. Proceedings of the Fifth Gender and Archaeology Conference, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Oct 1998, edited past Nancy L. Wicker and Bettina Arnold (BAR-IS 81; Oxford 1999) 11-22.
[9] Grand.M.50. Evans, "Note on the Dress of the Goddess and of the Votary," a contribution in A.J. Evans, "The Palace of Knossos. Provisional Report for the Twelvemonth 1903," The Annual of the British School at Athens, 9 (1902-1903) 1-153, esp. 80-81.
[10] A.J. Evans (supra n. 9) 74-87.
[eleven] J.L. Myres, "Excavations at Palaikastro, Two: �13. The Sanctuary-site of Petsof�," The Annual of the British School at Athens 9 (1902-1903) 356-87, esp. 363-65.
[12] For practitioners of corseting, come across, for example, T.B. Lierse, "L.I.Due south.A. (Long Island Staylace Association)," an Internet Www site: www.staylace.com (updated 14 September 2000; accessed 15 September 2000) passim, and /gallery7.htm; Due east. Riley, "The History of Corsets," an Internet WWW site: http://redrival.com/elisabat/corset.html (updated 2000; accessed fifteen September 2000); and Axfords "History of Corsets," an Internet WWW site: world wide web.axfords.com/corsets/catalogue/corset_history.html (updated 2000; accessed 15 September 2000). The American Museum of Natural History, New York City, held an showroom (20 November 1999-29 May 2000) of a variety of torso modifications, including corsetry: "Body Art: Marks of Identity. xx November 1999-29 May 2000," an Internet Www site: www.amnh.org/exhibitions/bodyart (updated 1999; accessed fifteen September 2000); and Discovery Communications Inc., Discovery Channel Online, "The Human being Canvas," an Net WWW site: world wide web.discovery.com/exp/humancanvas/humancanvas.html ( (Now DEFUNCT) ,esp. /corseting.html (updated 1999; accessed 15 September 2000). For the only book study, meet D. Kunzle, Fashion and Fetishism: A Social History of the Corset, Tight-lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture in the Due west (Totowa 1982).
[13] J.D.S. Pendlebury, The Archaeology of Crete: An Introduction (London 1939) 267; and F. Schachermeyr, Die minoische Kultur des alten Kreta (Stuttgart 1964) 123.
[14] A.J. Evans, Palace of Minos (London 1921-1935) vol. III, 447-52.
[15] D. Gill and C. Chippendale, "Fabric and Intellectual Consequences of Esteem for Cycladic Figures," American Journal of Archaeology 97 (1993) 601-59; C. Verlinden, Les Statuettes anthropomorphes cr�toises en bronze et an plomb, du IIIe mill�naire au VIIe si�cle av. J.-C. (Louvain-la-Neuve 1984) 229, pl. 102.
[sixteen] For instance, Kunzle (supra n. 12) pl. 8; and Riley (supra n. 12).
[17] Verlinden (supra due north. 15) nos. 30, pl. 14, and 31, pl. 15; S. Marinatos and K. Hirmer, Crete and Mycenae (New York 1960) pl. 104 below.
[18] Myres (supra northward. 11) 384, fig. 4.
[19] Evans (supra n. 14) vol. 3, color pl. Xvi.
[twenty] Evans (supra north. 14) vol. Iii, fig. 15A; P.P. Betancourt and Costis Davaras, eds., Pseira 2: Building Air conditioning (the "Shrine") and Other Buildings in Area A (Philadelphia 1998).
[21] Doumas (supra northward. seven) pl. 101.
[22] Evans (supra n. xiv) vols. I, color frontispiece, figs. 359-62, and 3, fig. 306; Marinatos & Hirmer (supra northward. 17) color pl. XXIV, pl. 70; and K.P. Foster, Aegean Faience of the Statuary Age (New Haven 1979) pls. 8-eleven, fig. 10.
[23] Bernice Jones, "Revealing Minoan Fashions," Archaeology 53.three (May/June 2000) 36-41, demonstrates the costume with a live model.
[24] Lierse (supra due north. 12) /c&due south.htm.
[25] The Sanctuary Rhyton from Kato Zakro: P.G. Warren, Minoan Rock Vases (Cambridge 1969) 43 P249, 36 P195, and 87; N. Platon, Zakros: The Discovery of a Lost Palace of Aboriginal Crete (New York 1971) pls. on pp. 165 & 168; and J.W. Shaw, "Evidence for the Minoan Tripartite Shrine," American Journal of Archæology 82 (1978) 429-48. Other rhyta: Warren (higher up) P480, P481, P488b; and Evans (supra n. fourteen) vol. II, fig 537b. And faience rhyta: Foster (supra n. 22) pls. 42, 43, 53, and 54.
[26] Eastward.C. Keuls, The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens (Berkeley 1985) 68, figs. 50, 51, 56.
[27] Pendlebury (supra n. xiii): 117; P. Rehak, "Aegean Breechcloths, Kilts, and Keftiu Paintings," American Journal of Archaeology 100 (1996) 35-51, esp. 39-41.
[28] Rehak (supra n. 27).
[29] H. Tzavella-Evjen, "The Ring of the Queen," Celebrations of Expiry and Divinity in the Bronze Age Argolid, edited by R. H�gg and G.C. Nordquist (Stockholm 1990) 171-74.
[30] Marinatos & Hirmer (supra north. 17) color pls. XV [Cup-Bearer fresco] and XVII [Taureador fresco]; and b/westward pls. 100 [Chieftain cup], 103-105 [Harvester vase], 106-107 [Boxer rhyton], and 180, 182, 184 [Vapheio cups] the Loving cup-Bearer from Knossos.
[31] For a detailed list: E. Sapouna-Sakellaraki, Minwi"ko\north Zw=ma (Athens 1971).
[32] Verlinden (supra n. fifteen) no. 133, pl. 59, a bronze figurine.
[33] J.One thousand. Younger, "Statuary Age Representations of Aegean Bull-Games, III," Politeia, edited by R. Laffineur and P.B. Betancourt (Aegaeum 12; Li�ge 1995) 507-45.
[34] Mary Ann Eaverly, "Colour and Gender in Aboriginal Painting: A Pan-Mediterranean Approach," in Wicker & Arnold (supra n. viii), 5-x.
[35] Younger (supra n. 33) 514-16, & n. 25; and Southward.D. Indelicato, "Were Cretan Girls Playing at Bull-leaping?" Cretan Studies i (1988) 39-47.
[36] P. Rehak, "Construction of Gender in LBA Aegean Art: A Prolegomenon," Redefining Archæology: Feminist Perspectives, edited past M. Casey , D. Donlon, J. Hope, and S. Wellfare (Canberra 1998) 191-98. On a black-figure kotyle by the Amasis Painter (Louvre A479; J.D. Beazley, Attic Black-Figure Vase Painters [Oxford 1956] 156, no. 80; Gundel Koch-Harnack, Knabenliebe und Tiergeschenke [Berlin 1983] figs. 24, 25, 43), a man gives a gift to a nude, white-painted hetaira [prostitute] whose torso is really that of a youth with a high chest and no breast development.
[37] Rehak (supra n. 27) 48-50.
[38] Kunzle (supra n. 12).
[39] T.B. Lierse, "The Corsetorium — WebRing," an Internet World wide web site: http://webring.com (updated 2000; accessed 15 September 2000).
[xl] American Museum of Natural History, New York City (supra n. 12), and Discovery Communications Inc. (supra due north. 12).
[41] Kunzle (supra northward. 12) 320-22
[42] Lierse (supra north. 12) /Btape.JPG
[43] Lierse (supra n. 12) /pu4spook.htm
[44] Evans (supra n. 14) vol. 3, 444-48
[45] Discovery Communications Inc. (supra north. 12) /corseting.html, and /image1europe.jpg.
[46] See Lierse (supra northward. 12) /cabinet1.jpg
[47] B. Ramm, "Babba'due south Corsets Residence," an Cyberspace WWW site: www.BabbaRammDass.de/Seiten/corset-residence/Welcome.html (updated July 2000; accessed xv September 2000), esp. his web site (Now DEFUNCT)
www.s-c-u-d.de/Media/CorsetResidence/11.jpg.(Now DEFUNCT)
[48] Lierse (supra n. 12) /oxygen.jpg.
[49] Lierse (supra n. 12) /shoppe.htm, and /corst248.jpg.
[50] For example, Electra, "Electra'southward Spider web: Corsets," an Internet World wide web site: www.electrasweb.com/corsets/index.html (updated 2000; accessed fifteen September 2000), esp. "My First Week in a Corset": /corset_1stwk.html; Stephen, "Tight Tales: Corset Fiction," an Internet WWW site: www.geocities.com/SoHo/Workshop/6870/alphabetize.html (updated 9 September 2000; accessed 15 September 2000) (NOW DEFUNCT) , esp. Jamie's "The Corset Research Annal," /Invitee/jamie/intro.html; and Pinkie, "Pinkie'southward Corsetry Pages," (at present archived at www.staylace.com) an Internet World wide web site: http://ms.ha.physician.united states/~hotpink/corsets/ (updated 1999; accessed fifteen September 2000), esp. "Diary [23 May - 2 September 1999]": /diary/.
[51] Doumas (supra n. 7) pls. seven, 10, 12.
[52] S.P. Murray, "The Enigmatic Lady in Yellow from the Firm of the Ladies," American Periodical of Archaeology 103 (1999) 315; S.P. Murray, "The Clothing Scene from the Business firm of the Ladies," Festschrift for Sara A. Immerwahr (2000 forthcoming).
[53] For instance, W. M�ller and I. Pini, eds., Corpus der minoischen und mykenischen Siegel, vol. II: Iraklion Arch�ologisches Museum, fasc. six: Die Siegelabdr�cke von Aj. Triada und anderen zentral- und ostkretischen Fundorten (Berlin 1999) no. 11.
[54] Evans (supra n. 14) vol. color pls. XVII & Xviii.
[55] J.G. Younger, Music in the Aegean Statuary Age (Studies In Mediterranean Archeology pocket volume 96; Jonsered 1998) 7-nine, 74-75, pls. 1 superlative, and two.
[56] See the "Trip the light fantastic toe in the Grove" fresco from Knossos: Evans (supra n. fourteen) vol. Iii, colour pl. Eighteen.
[57] Encounter the leaper on the Boxer rhyton gored at the waist: Marinatos & Hirmer (supra northward. 17) pl. 107 top.
[58] P. Rehak, ed., The Function of the Ruler in the Prehistoric Aegean (Aegaeum 11; Li�ge 1995) passim.
[59] J. Bamberger, "The Myth of Matriarchy: Why Men Rule in Primitive Society," Women, Civilization and Society, edited by M.Z. Rosaldo and L. Lamphere (Stanford 1974) 263-80.
[60] M.A.S. Cameron, "Unpublished Paintings from the 'House of the Frescoes' at Knossos," Annual of the British School at Athens 63 (1968) 1-31.
[61] C.M. Starr supplies the necessary correctives: "The Myth of the Minoan Thalassocracy," Historia 3 (1953) 282-86; and "Minoan Flower Lovers," The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality, edited by R. H�gg and N. Marinatos (Grand�teborg 1983) 9-12.
[62] I.A. Sakellarakis and E. Sapouna-Sakellaraki, "Drama of Death in a Minoan Temple," National Geographic Magazine 159.2 (February 1981) 204-23; and P.1000. Warren, "Knossos: Stratigraphic Museum Excavations, 1978-1982," Archaeological Reports 29 (1982-1983) 63-87.
[63] Younger (supra n. 54) 55; and Rehak (supra n. 35).
[64] Younger (supra n. 54) 54-60, especially 57 and threescore.
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